Panji Across SEA

Research

  1. The Setting
  2. Character design
  3. Batik patterns
  4. Gamelan music
  5. Traditional kuih

1. The Setting: Panji & Majapahit

Even though Panji is a quintessential Javanese Majapahit story, there is no original Panji manuscript from Majapahit era that still exists today. Yet, all retellings of Panji tales still maintain similar settings and themes, which is indicative of the high regards to cultural root of the stories. Similarly, the book that this project is based on, "Hikayat Panji Semirang", was written in Bahasa Melayu and printed in Singapore, but still uses Majapahit-era Java as the setting. In adapting the tales for 360imx, this project will also draw inspirations from Majapahit culture. However, it will also highlights the relationships between Southeast Asian cultures during the time, making in an adaptation that spans "across the sea".
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2. Character Design: Shadow Puppets

While Panji tales have been traditionally performed using classic shadow puppets, the characters featured in this project are animated and stylised in the form of modern shadow puppets with perforated looks and more proportional figures. The perforations applied to the characters follow traditional Batik motifs which have existed since Majapahit era. The characters' attires are also inspired from the depictions of Majapahit Kings and Queens from statues, temple reliefs, and historical accounts of Chinese travellers.
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3. Batik Patterns

While the exact origin of the technique that produced the ever-rich Batik patterns is unknown, it is believed that it has already existed since 12th Century or even earlier, as evident from the carvings in batik patterns at some archaeological sites related to old Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Indonesia. Coincidentally, the textile techniques were spread around in other countries where Panji tales are also popular. This article provides glimpses of the different types of patterns found in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.
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4. Gamelan Music

A good portion of the story of the book "Hikayat Panji Semirang" describes Candra Kirana and her loyal followers travelling in disguise as gambuh performers. Had the story truly taken place in Majapahit era, their performances would have been accompanied by a specific type of Gamelan (traditional Indonesian music) with the same name. The instruments used in ancient Gamelan ensemble that would have become known as gambuh still exist today and are popular in Bali, but some of them are also used in other communities in SEA.
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5. Traditional Kuih

A good portion of the story of the book "Hikayat Panji Semirang" describes Candra Kirana and her loyal followers travelling in disguise as gambuh performers. Had the story truly taken place in Majapahit era, their performances would have been accompanied by a specific type of Gamelan (traditional Indonesian music) with the same name. The instruments used in ancient Gamelan ensemble that would have become known as gambuh still exist today and are popular in Bali, but some of them are also used in other communities in SEA.
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The Setting: Panji & Majapahit

The origin of Panji stories was thought to be from the 13th century East Java or earlier, as suggested by the inclusion of the kingdom "Singhasari" in some versions of the stories that exist today[1][2]. Singhasari was the precursor kingdom of Majapahit, and the histories of the two kingdoms were always interlinked that it would be difficult not to mention the former kingdom while discussing the latter one[3]. While it is likely that Panji stories had existed since before Majapahit era, the stories grew to become popular during Majapahit era. This is evident from the depictions of Panji that were carved in numerous Majapahit-era temples[4]. Some Panji scholars also believed that the spread of the stories to other regions in Southeast Asia was linked to the expansion of Majapahit kingdom during its heyday[5][6], though some others believed that it happened much later[4][2].

panji story in candi panataran
Depiction of Panji story in Panataran temple, East Java. Source: National Geographic

While Panji is a quintessentially Javanese Majapahit story, there has never been a true, original Majapahit Panji manuscript that exists today that we can refer to[7]. In fact, most well-known Panji stories that exist today were invented and popularised much closer to current time[2]. This might be because the original stories of Panji were spread around mostly through performances, oral communications, and paintings or other arts instead of written manuscripts[5][6]. Yet, all retellings, even the ones from other countries, still maintain the same (or similar) settings and themes, which is indicative of the high regards of the people who adapted the stories to the geographical origin and cultural root of the stories[8][4].

In adapting "Hikayat Panji Semirang" for 360imx, this project will also mostly draw inspirations from Majapahit culture. For example, the layout of palaces and temple complexes, the attire of the characters, and the depictions of food, trades, and other objects are all inspired from archaeological findings, artefacts, and other accounts from Majapahit era. However, as the title of the project implies ("Panji Across SEA"), the emphasis of the project is on the relationships between Southeast Asian countries during pre-colonial times, with Panji as the story that unifies this idea. As such, this project will also feature some objects and traditions from other countries in Southeast Asia in order to enrich the story and match it to the underlying theme. The inspiration to take this approach comes from the book that this project is adapted from. While the story of "Panji Semirang" is still set in Java, the book was written in Bahasa Melayu and printed in Singapore, making it a perfect example of an adaptation that spans "across the sea".

hikayat panji semirang book
The book 'Hikayat Panji Semirang'. Source: NUS Libraries

The book originally mentioned four places as the set of the Panji Semirang story, which are: Kuripan (Kahuripan), Daha (Kediri), Gagelang, and Mount Wilis. Kahuripan and Daha were considered the two most important provinces of Majapahit, according to the accounts in Nagara-kertagama[9][1]. The compound of Kahuripan is estimated to be at present-day Surabaya, while Daha stood at where Kediri is now[9]. There was no mention of Gagelang (or Gegelang, or sometimes Gelang-Gelang), in Nagara-kertagama, but it is believed that the territory/province was established only towards the end of Majapahit and has now become known as the city Madiun[10][11]. Mount Wilis retains its name until today. As the project is split into three parts (Act 1: Raden Inu, Act 2: Candra Kirana, and Act 3: Gagelang), it will zoom into Kahuripan, Daha, and Gagelang as the background setting for each act.

majapahit map
Map of the extent of Majapahit Kingdom. Source: Wikimedia

Interested in the book "Hikayat Panji Semirang"? Find it at NUS Libraries here. Other versions of Panji tales are also available to read at Singapore-Malaysia Collection!


[1] Munoz, P. M. (2016). Early kingdom: Indonesian archipelago & the Malay Peninsula. Editions Didier Millet.

[2] Liaw, Y. F. (2013). A History of Classical Malay Literature. ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/history-of-classical-malay-literature/62A4BB01FE98AD03D44E256BDDA9633A

[3] Slametmuljana. (1976). A Story of Majapahit. Singapore University Press.

[4] Kieven, L. C. (2017). Getting Closer to the Primordial Panji? Panji Stories Carved in Stone at Ancient Javanese Majapahit Temples – and Their Impact as Cultural Heritage Today. SPAFA Journal, 1. https://doi.org/10.26721/spafajournal.v1i0.172

[5] Vickers, A. (2020). Reconstructing the history of Panji performances in Southeast Asia. Wacana, 21(2), 268–284. https://doi.org/10.17510/wacana.v21i2.897

[6] Manuaba, I. B. (2013). Keberadaan dan Bentuk Transformasi Cerita Panji. LITERA, 12(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.21831/ltr.v12i01.1325

[7] Panji Cerita Asli Indonesia. (2019, January 28). Museum Nasional Indonesia. https://www.museumnasional.or.id/panji-cerita-asli-indonesia-1836

[8] Kieven, L. (2013). Narrative reliefs and Panji stories. In Following the Cap-Figure in Majapahit Temple Reliefs (pp. 19–50). Brill. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76vm3.7

[9] Pigeaud, T. G. (1962). Java in the 14th Century: Vol. IV (Third edition). Springer. https://link-springer-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/book/10.1007/978-94-011-8776-3.

[10] Hanif, M., Samsiyah, N., & Sri Maruti, E. (2020). Panduan bercerita berpasangan juru pelihara situs sejarah Madiun. Scopindo Media Pustaka.

[11] Sisa Peninggalan Kerajaan Gelang Gelang di Madiun Juga Diincar Kolektor. (2014). detiknews. Retrieved 18 May 2022, from https://news.detik.com/berita/d-2478667/sisa-peninggalan-kerajaan-gelang-gelang-di-madiun-juga-diincar-kolektor

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Character Design: Shadow Puppets

All characters featured in this project are animated and stylised in the form of modern shadow puppets. While Panji tales have been traditionally performed using classic shadow puppet ("wayang"), the use of more "contemporary" design would be more appropriate for a digital adaptation since it allows aesthetic innovations that focus more on the story and themes instead of traditional forms and rituals[1].

wayang bocor
A contemporary Indonesian shadow puppet. Source: Wayang Bocor

In designing the characters with a modern twist, the style of perforated shadow puppets with proportional figures is chosen so that it can feature traditional Batik motifs. The use of more proportional human figures is also present in carvings and statues found in early Javanese sites and temples[2][3][4]. Thus, a different form of authenticity to the original culture is still maintained even without the use of traditional wayang. The perforated style of shadow puppets can also be traced to many different places (such as China, Malaysia, Thailand, India, and even as far as Egypt)[5], which would allow better recognitions of the characters by audiences who are not familiar with traditional wayang, considering the short amount of time each character will be displayed on screen.

thai shadow puppets
Modern Thai shadow puppets. Source: Thaizer

The characters' attires also follow the general principles of dressing attires of the men in Majapahit era. Both male and female characters are wearing one or two-layered cloth stretched to ankle ("kain Panjang"); the males are bare-chested, while the females are wearing additional upper garments. These descriptions are based on statues of Majapahit Kings and Queens from the 14th century[6][7], the accounts of Ma Huan (a Chinese traveller who accompanied Cheng Ho during his visit to Java in 15th century)[8], and reliefs found from Majapahit temples.

harihara statue
Harihara statue depicting Majapahit king Raden Wijaya. Source: Kemdikbud

Since the characters are of noble and/or royal origins, they will also be decorated with upper arm bracelets, layered wrist bracelets, necklace, ear coverings, and headgear. The Batik motifs decorating the characters are in the variations of "kawung", "ceplok", and "parang" motifs. The first two motifs have been found in historical figures depicting Kings and Queens of Majapahit, while the last one is the motif most commonly associated with Javanese royalties[4].

As for the face, it will generally follow the principles used in traditional dance masks. The characters will have thin, curly / arched eyebrows, stretched eyelines, curly lips, and decorative element on the forehead[9].

panji masks
Masks of 'Panji' characters for dance performances. Source: The Jakarta Post

[1] Escobar, M. (2014). Wayang Kontemporer: Innovations in Javanese Wayang Kulit [Dissertation, National University of Singapore]. https://cwa-web.org/dissertation/wayang-dis/index.php

[2] Winaya, A., & Munandar, A. A. (2021). Ancient Javanese Women during the Majapahit period (14th – 15th centuries CE): An Iconographic Study based on the Temple Reliefs | Perempuan Jawa Kuno periode Majapahit (Abad ke-14 – 15 Masehi): Suatu tinjauan Ikonografi terhadap Relief Candi. SPAFA Journal, 5. https://doi.org/10.26721/spafajournal.2021.v5.658

[3] Kieven, L. (2013). Narrative reliefs and Panji stories. In Following the Cap-Figure in Majapahit Temple Reliefs (pp. 19–50). Brill. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76vm3.7

[4] Kerlogue, F. (2004). Batik: Design, Style & History. Thames & Hudson.

[5] Chen, F. P. (2003). Shadow theaters of the world. Asian Folklore Studies, 62(1), 25–64.

[6] Dit. PCBM. (2019, February 15). Arca Harihara Ditetapkan Sebagai Cagar Budaya Nasional—Direktorat Pelindungan Kebudayaan. Indonesiana. https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/dpk/arca-harihara-ditetapkan-sebagai-cagar-budaya-nasional/

[7] MNI. (2019, May 13). ARCA PARWATI. Museum Nasional. https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/munas/arca-parwati/

[8] Ma, H. (1970). Ying-yai sheng-lan ‘The overall survey of the ocean’s shores’ (C.-C. Feng, Ed. & Trans.). University Press. (Original work published 1433)

[9] Suwasono, B. T. (2021). Rupa Topeng Panji Gaya Yogyakarta Di Museum Sonobudoyo. Suluh: Jurnal Seni Desain Budaya, 4(2), 147–166.

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Batik Patterns

Did you know that Batik technique has already existed during Majapahit era or even before? Batik patterns have been featured in some of the archaeological statues found from Majapahit and pre-Majapahit era, such as Candi Prambanan and Candi Singhasari[1][2]. The Batik patterns which were found in the statues and reliefs are mostly of lereng, ceplok, and kawung[3][4][5][2]. Batik cloths are also popular in Malaysia and Thailand (mostly the southern part). Coincidentally, these countries are also where Panji stories are popular. In this project, the three traditional Javanese Batik patterns are liberally applied in the characters design, but patterns from Malaysian, Southern Thailand, and even Singapore are also featured in some of the scenes.

Kawung: this motif is said to represent the fruit of a sugar palm (arenga saccharifera)[6]. With four lozenges around a centre, the motif is seen as the perfect visual expression of “mancapat”, the old Javanese philosophical belief of balance[7]. Because of this philosophical meaning, the kawung motif used to be restricted for use by members of the royal household only[3]. This Batik motif was featured in a statue from the 14th century depicting the first king and founder of Majapahit Kingdom, Raden Wijaya[1][5][2].

batik kawung
Example of the kawung pattern. Source: Kompas

Ceplok: this motif has repetitive geometrical patterns, mostly of squares and circles. It is used to depict forms of nature, such as flowers (opened up and seen from above), fruits, birds, insects, or fish[8][9]. The word “ceplok” means metal clasp ornament with roses, stars, and other little things[8][6]. Ceplok patterns that feature flowers and stars ("truntum") are often used to symbolise love, or falling in love, and thus quite frequently used by lovers or as wedding attires[9][3]. Ceplok motif is also featured in the statue of Raden Wijaya and other reliefs found from Majapahit temples[5][2].

batik ceplok
Ceplok motif with diagonal cross pattern. Source: Batik Design/NUS Libraries

Lereng: this motif has inclining border, taken from the word “lereng” which also means “garis miring” (diagonal line). The most popular example of lereng motif is parang, which means dagger, but the motif is also used to symbolise either sunbeams or lotus blossoms[6][7]. In Javanese arts, the parang motif is usually associated with youths and bravery, so it is popularly worn by young noblemen[8][3]. A specific pattern in the same group, called “parang rusak” used to be reserved only for the king’s sons and daughters, brothers, and uncles[8][3]. The giant form of this motif, “parang rusak barong”, could only be worn by the king, his wife, and his first son[6].

batik parang rusak
Batik with pattern called 'Parang rusak barong'. Source: Kompas

Pucuk rebung: In contrast to Javanese traditional Batik patterns, the Malaysian counterparts usually have more prominent geometrical patterns and are less concerned with strict philosophical guidelines[10]. Batik in Malaysia has never been regarded as the main dressing code of the royal households[11]. Floral patterns are the most common Batik motifs in Malaysia. Of this, the pattern pucuk rebung (bamboo shoot), with prominent triangular elements, is one of the more well-known styles that are still being used even until today[10].

malaysian batik pucuk rebung
Malaysian Batik with 'pucuk rebung' motif. Source: Malaysian Batik/NUS Libraries

Pikul: Batik techniques were only more widely adopted by the Thais around 17th century, when the Javanese Batik creators had much improved their techniques for better exports[12]. As a result, the Thais had more liberties in designing their Batik. Floral and geometrical motifs remained popular, but there were also more abstract patterns[13]. The Thais also blended influences from the Malays and Chinese, and designed the patterns not just for textiles, but also for ceramic arts and crafts. A pattern called “Pikul”, which is the provincial flower of Narathiwat Province, is still used today as its local identity[14].

thai pikul fabric
Thai fabric with 'pikul' flower motif. Source: Shutterstock

Interested in seeing more Batik patterns from around the world? NUS Libraries has a wealth of resources on this topic. Check them out at Central Library Books and other collections!


[1] Setyawan, & Studyanto, A. B. (2018). Design Development of The Batik Majapahit: The Legacy of the Past and Present Creativity. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Creative Media, Design and Technology (REKA 2018). Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Creative Media, Design and Technology (REKA 2018), Surakarta, Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.2991/reka-18.2018.36

[2] Sardjono, S. S. (2017). Tracing Patterns of Textiles in Ancient Java (8th–15th century) [Ph.D., University of California, Berkeley]. Retrieved 17 May 2022, from https://www.proquest.com/docview/2322186304/abstract/19E1347D951C4EDFPQ/1

[3] Kerlogue, F. (2004). Batik: Design, Style & History. Thames & Hudson.

[4] Natanegara, D. D. (2019). Batik Indonesia. Yayasan Batik Indonesia.

[5] Fraser-Lu, S. (1986). Indonesian Batik: Processes, Patterns and Places. Oxford University Press.

[6] Haake, A. (1989). The role of symmetry in Javanese batik patterns. Computers & Mathematics with Applications, 17(4), 815–826. https://doi.org/10.1016/0898-1221(89)90262-9

[7] Swallow, D. A. (1987). Javanese batiks: Meaning, intepretation and change. Indonesia Circle. School of Oriental & African Studies. Newsletter, 15(42), 33–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/03062848708729659

[8] Adam, T. (1935). The Art of Batik. Needle and Bobbin Club.

[9] Hamzuri, D. (1981). Batik Klasik—Classical Batik. Penerbit Djambatan.

[10] Syed Shaharuddin, S. I., Shamsuddin, M. S., Drahman, M. H., Hasan, Z., Mohd Asri, N. A., Nordin, A. A., & Shaffiar, N. M. (2021). A Review on the Malaysian and Indonesian Batik Production, Challenges, and Innovations in the 21st Century. SAGE Open, 11(3), 21582440211040130. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211040128

[11] Yunus, N. A. (2011). Malaysian Batik: Reinventing A Tradition. Tuttle Publishing.

[12] Hall, K. R. (1996). The Textile Industry in Southeast Asia, 1400-1800. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 39(2), 87–135.

[13] Khwansuwan, W. (2021). Batik Patterns in the South of Thailand. International Journal of Art & Design, 5(2), 24–32.

[14] Malisuwan, C., Keawlek, S., Pukdee, S. K., & Tamasha, R. (2021). The Identity Inheritance of Arts and Crafts Product Patterns (motif) in Narathiwat Province. Academy of Strategic Management Journal, 20, 1–18.

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Gamelan Music

Gamelan had already existed during Majapahit era as it was mentioned in Nagara-kertagama (the 14th century poem written by Mpu Prapanca in Majapahit). It was described as a set of instruments that are not large, as the ensembles would have to be carried from place to place to accompany dances and theatrical performances at both the Court and the countryside[1]. Due to this general description, it is then believed that the instruments used in 14th century Majapahit era would be different to the ones found in Central Javanese kraton (palace) today[2].

The book "Hikayat Panji Semirang" provides a glimpse of the type of performance that was popular during the period of time. A portion of the story describes Candra Kirana and her loyal followers travelling in disguise as gambuh performers. While the book does not specifically define the performers as gambuh musicians, dancers, or singers, it can be assumed that their performances would have been accompanied by a specific type of Gamelan music with the same name.

Here is how the gambuh Gamelan instruments are described in Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians:

“The ancient Gamelan gambuh, used to accompany the courtly gambuh dance drama, is dominated by the long, resonant gambuh suling bamboo flutes which can exceed a metre in length. A rebeb spike fiddle is added to the several suling to elaborate the principal melody. The usual battery of two kendang, klenang, and ceng-ceng are included alongside a suspended kempur, kemenak metal tubes, and the kangsi chime. A kajar gong chime reinforces the patterns performed on the kendang.”
suling Bali
Suling in Bali Gamelan gambuh ensemble. Source: University of Washington Libraries

It is worth noting that while all these instruments have existed for the longest time in Java, some of them did eventually lose their popularity within the region in favour of other types of Gamelan music. However, while they become rarer in Java, they can still be found today in Bali as gambuh had never lost its popularity in the island ever since the Hindu populace of Majapahit migrated there[2]. Some other instruments, such as suling and rebab, also find their popularities in other cultures, such as the Malay community in Peninsular Malaysia and the peoples of the southern Philippines[3][4].

Interested in knowing more about each gambuh Gamelan instrument? You can read more detailed descriptions of each of them at Grove Music Online!

Hear some of these special instruments, such as the rare kemenak ("gumanak" in Bali or kempul ("kempur") in the music performed and recorded by Singa Nglaras specially for this project!

gumanak
Gumanak (kemenak) instrument. Source: University of Washington Libraries

[1] Pigeaud, T. G. (1962). Java in the 14th Century: Vol. IV (Third edition). Springer. https://link-springer-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/book/10.1007/978-94-011-8776-3

[2] Kunst, J. (1968). Hindu-Javanese Musical Instruments. Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-9185-2

[3] Kartomi, M. J. (2001, January 20). Suling. Grove Music Online. https://www-oxfordmusiconline-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000027098

[4] Matusky, P. (2015, May 28). Rebab. Grove Music Online. https://www-oxfordmusiconline-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-4002281723

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Traditional Kuih

One defining moment in Candra Kirana's story in "Hikayat Panji Semirang" is when her mother, the Queen of Daha, was poisoned by one of the King's consorts who was jealous of her. The book used "tape" (or "tapai") as the snack in which the poison was placed in. Did you know that this snack has also existed since Majapahit time? In presenting the traditional kueh (snack) as part of the interactive elements in the scene, this project will also tap into other types of kueh that can be traced back to other SEA communities.

tape ketan
Tape (tapai) ketan. Source: Kompas

Tape (tapai): There are two types of tape that are still widely available today in both Indonesia and Malaysia: one with glutinuous rice (tape ketan) and one with cassava (tape singkong). Even though the book "Hikayat Panji Semirang" did not specifically mention which type of tape that was being used in the poisoning, based on the culinary traditions traced from the descendants of Majapahit community in Trowulan, the most likely type of tape that existed during Majapahit era was tape ketan[1]. The preparation of tape for both tape ketan and tape singkong involves fermenting the basic ingredients for a few days with sugar and yeast.

wajik
Wajik. Source: Detik

Wajik and dodol: This snack is believed to have been existed since Majapahit era[1]. It originated from Central Java[2][3]. The snack is also popular in Brunei, where it is known as wajid[4]. It is believed to be a variant of dodol, which is also a snack that has existed since Majapahit era[1]. dodol is popular in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, where it is perhaps more well-known as kalamea[2]. In Yogyakarta, Indonesia, wajik snack is still an essential element of the kraton (palace) custom and it is still used in traditional ceremonies and festivals[5].

kuih-lapis
Kuih lapis. Source: Taste Atlas

Kuih lapis: While kuih lapis might have more modern origins (it is popularised as a Nyonya cuisine[6]), the snack has been popular in Southern China territories[7] and it comes under many names and colours. Some examples are the Vietnamese cake bánh da lợn and Cambodian num chak chan. Indonesia also has the baked version of kue lapis which is often called “kue lapis legit” to differentiate the types. This baked kue lapis originates from the Dutch colonial era inspired by European layer cakes[8][9]. Even though the exact time period when steamed kuih lapis came to Southeast Asia is not fully known, there were already documented Chinese immigrants in Java during Majapahit era, so it is possible that they would have brought their cooking techniques then or in later period of time.

ondeh-ondeh
Ondeh-ondeh. Source: Rasa Malaysia

Ondeh-ondeh or klepon: ondeh-ondeh is believed to have originated from the peranakan community (Nyonya cuisine), similar to kuih lapis[10]. It is thought to originate from a similarly shaped Chinese snack, but the fillings were localised by the Southeast Asians to use the more readily available gula malaka (palm sugar) instead. In Indonesia, ondeh-ondeh is also a name for other type of round-shaped snack (likely closer to the original Chinese snack), and so the name klepon is more commonly used in Indonesia to describe the same snack as Malaysian ondeh-ondeh. It is believed the snack is also available in Thailand under a different name[11]. The preparation of ondeh-ondeh is also similar to the snack moun lon yei bo in Myanmar, albeit without the green colourings[12].


[1] Hendra, H., Wahyuningputri, R. A., Putra, A. N., & Levyta, F. (2021). The lexicon of Majapahit culinary at Trowulan in the globalization era. Journal of Tourism, Culinary and Entrepreneurship (JTCE), 1(2), 208–218. https://doi.org/10.37715/jtce.v1i2.2271

[2] Ismail, N., Ab. Karim, M. S., Che Ishak, F. A., Arsyad, M. M., Karnjamapratum, S., & Sirison, J. (2021). The Malay’s traditional sweet, dodol: A review of the Malaysia’s heritage delicacy alongside with the rendition of neighbouring countries. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 8(19), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-021-00095-3

[3] Afifah, A. A. (2020). Introducing new packaging ‘Monami Bakery’ Indonesian jajanan pasar store to foreign tourists [Bina Nusantara]. http://library.binus.ac.id/Thesis/RelatedSubject/IS1-SN-AD-2020-0111

[4] Hussin, A. (2016, December 12). Makanan tradisi Brunei masih jadi pilihan. Pelita Brunei, 20.

[5] Numplak Wajik. (2019, May 7). https://www.kratonjogja.id/hajad-dalem/16/numplak-wajik

[6] Raji, M. N. A., Ab Karim, S., Ishak, F. A. C., & Arshad, M. M. (2017). Past and present practices of the Malay food heritage and culture in Malaysia. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 4(4), 221–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2017.11.001

[7] Nasrallah, N. (2015). Ramadan. In D. Goldstein, S. Mintz, M. Krondl, E. Rath, & L. Mason (Eds.), The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets. Oxford University Press. https://www-oxfordreference-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/10.1093/acref/9780199313396.001.0001/acref-9780199313396-e-291?rskey=RbPUmo&result=2

[8] Reber, P. B. (2015). Layer cake. In D. Goldstein, S. Mintz, M. Krondl, E. Rath, & L. Mason (Eds.), The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets. Oxford University Press. https://www-oxfordreference-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/10.1093/acref/9780199313396.001.0001/acref-9780199313396-e-291?rskey=RbPUmo&result=2

[9] Li, Z., & Wong, M. H. (2017, April 3). Cakes of the world: Tiramisu, baklava, cheesecake and more national treats. CNN Travel. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/world-national-cakes/index.html

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